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In 46 BC Julius Caesar appointed him governor of the province of Africa. He attempted to mitigate this by passing laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces, and although these laws remained in effect well into the imperial period, they did not prevent determined generals, such as Pompey and Julius Caesar, from using their armies for personal ambition against the Senate, a danger of which Sulla was intimately aware. [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. [125], Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. [100] In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. Sulla was closely associated with Venus,[9] adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favored of Aphrodite/Venus.[10]. Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. [66] Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus. Washington, DC, March 19, 2013 - The U.S. invasion of Iraq turned out to be a textbook case of flawed assumptions, wrong-headed intelligence, propaganda manipulation, and administrative ad hockery, according to the National Security Archive's briefing book of declassified documents posted today to mark the 10 th anniversary of the war. National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). In fact, many sources can be either primary or secondary depending on the context of the research and of the source itself. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius, which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. [76] Without troops defending Rome itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or . At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. The Battle of Sacriportus occurred between the forces of Young Marius and the battle-hardened legions of Sulla. [61] Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. [94] While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families, confiscating any available properties. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. [87], Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. [64], Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. Although he was able to regain the command, his political setup in Rome collapsed almost as soon as he left Italy, and the war would . [113], Sulla crossed the Adriatic for Brundisium in spring of 83BC with five legions of Mithridatic veterans, capturing Brundisium without a fight. Secondary Sources: Primary sources are not complete; you will find the following helpful: Boardman, John, ed. The proscriptions are widely perceived as a response to similar killings that Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. [141][140][142][143][144] Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. Primary sources are "first-hand" information, sources as close as possible to the origin of the information or idea under study. Plutarch of Chaeronea in Boeotia (ca. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. An example of the extent of his charming side was that his soldiers would sing a ditty about Sulla's one testicle, although without truth, to which he allowed as being "fond of a jest. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. Fimbria then committed suicide after a failed attempt on Sulla's life. [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. Se l'azienda ha pi di 200 dipendenti, deve essere presente anche il rappresentante sindacale aziendale (RSA). [42], Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. The Senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum against him and was successful in levying large amount of men and materiel from the Italians. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82BC were now dead. "[132] The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. [108] Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. 133/18 Scipio praises C.Marius. Primary sources are often in manuscript collections and archival records. [74], During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). 106/10 The quaestor L.Sulla arrives at Marius' camp with reinforcements from [23] The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. Primary Source 10. Primary Sources Sallust. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. The law was vetoed by one of the tribunes, but when Quintus Pompeius Rufus went to Pompey Strabo's army to take command under the Senate's authority, he was promptly assassinated after his arrival and assumption of command, almost certainly on Strabo's orders. [36] Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla a patrician, even if a poor one, as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius. Updated on June 22, 2022 Students. [16] His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107BC. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time. However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. The first of the, Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback, sfn error: no target: CITEREFBadian2012 (. [40] But Catulus' army was defeated in the eastern Alps and withdrew from Venetia and thence to the southern side of the river Po. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. [111], The peace reached with Mithridates was condemned in ancient times as a betrayal of Roman interests for Sulla's private interest in fighting and winning the coming civil war. [138], As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. Deciding whether a source is primary or secondary is sometimes confusing. The tools are designed to support 3 levels of critical thinking and inquiry skills (explore, analyse and critically analyse) for years 1 to 13. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. These sieges lasted until spring of 86BC. After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. [31] Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. Guide. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. [123], After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. Wikipedia entry. What Is a Primary Source? Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. For example: scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, biographies, or textbooks. [37], Starting in 104BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. [127] Sulla himself was defeated and forced to flee into his camp, but his lieutenant Crassus on the right wing won the battle in the night. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . Secondary sources, on the other hand, are made . [97], Early in 87BC, Sulla transited the Adriatic for Thessaly with his five legions. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). under Gaius Marius in the wars against the Numidian rebel Jugurtha. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. [93] News of these conquests reached Rome in the autumn of 89BC, leading the Senate and people to declare war; actual preparations for war were, however, delayed: after Sulla was given the command, it took him some eighteen months to organise five legions before setting off; Rome was also severely strained financially. [34] The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Sulla's body was brought into the city on a golden bier, escorted by his veteran soldiers, and funeral orations were delivered by several eminent senators, with the main oration possibly delivered by Lucius Marcius Philippus or Hortensius. Primary sources are most often produced around the time of the events you are studying. Secondary sources are interpretations of history. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I? Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. Cinna violently quarrelled with his co-consul, Gnaeus Octavius. Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. Rome at the End of the Punic Wars [History, Book 6] [At this Site] Acts of the Divine Augustus (Res Gestae Divi Augusti) [At MIT] The Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), [At UNRV History] Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), c.98 CE trans. Moreover, the people knew that Sulla was friends with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, and rejected his standing for the praetorship to induce him to spend money on games. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. Sulla had officially been declared an outlaw and in the eyes of the Cinnan regime, Flaccus was to take command of an army without a legal commander. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. [106] Roman forces then surrounded the Pontic camp. [81.3] Magnesia, the only city in Asia that remained loyal, was defended against Mithridates with the greatest courage. Examples include journal articles, reviews . Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. The historian Sallust fleshes out this character sketch of Sulla: He was well versed both in Greek and Roman literature, and had a truly remarkable mind. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. Encyclopedias. [92] In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and art objects. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. [49] At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. The Acropolis was then besieged. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. They had, however, fallen on hard times. Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. Website. [100] The Pontic casualties given in Plutarch and Appian, the main sources for the battles, are exaggerated; Sulla's report that he suffered merely fifteen losses is not credible. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. From Book 81 [81.1] [87 BCE] Lucius Sulla besieged Athens, which had been occupied by Archelaus, an officer of Mithridates; [81.2] [86] after much labor he took the city .. note he gave it back the freedom it used to have. For instance, Da Vinci's Mona Lisa is a primary source because it is the most famous art piece during the Renaissance period. His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator,[151] as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. onwards. [145], His public funeral in Rome (in the Forum, in the presence of the whole city) was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in AD 14. Sulla then served as legate under his former commander and, in that stead, successfully subdued a Gallic tribe which revolted in the aftermath of a previous Roman defeat.